Jenna's Book History Page

Bibliography

Solveig C. Robinson, The Book in Society. Pp. 21-46. Print.

In Robinson’s The Book in Society, she provides a clear and concise account of the origins of the three major writing systems of the ancient world: Egyptian, Chinese, and Mesoamerican. She also highlights the importance of the written word when she states that, “it is writing that had enabled theorists, inventors, and practitioners in all spheres of human endeavor across time and space to share, challenge, and refine one another’s ideas” (21). Robinson provides a detailed account of the history of each of the three writing systems and explores the different methodologies and innovations of each. The explanation of each writing system allows the reader to juxtapose the similarities and differences between the three separate systems and their respective benefits to society.

Secondly, Robinson offers an extensive account of the inception of parchment. She provides an explanation of the process of making the parchment, from step one, “parchment is made from the inner lining of the skin of a suitable animal… the skin is first washed and rubbed with lime,” (33) all the way through to the finished product: “finally, it is dusted with chalk and rubbed with fine pumice” (33). She offers a similarly helpful account of the process of paper manufacturing and printing, as well as highlighting its origins. Finally, Robinson explores the “borrowed and combined elements of pre-existing writing systems,” (44) along with invention of symbols which represented vowel sounds which originated in ancient Greece. She astutely highlights the benefits of the addition of vowels and the subsequent “extraordinary flowering of literary arts… and critical theory that enabled both readers and practitioners to analyze and understand that literature” (45).

Robinson provides an adequate and informative account on the origins of writing systems in the ancient world and the technical processes which were implemented during the creation of these systems. She also highlights the way each system has contributed to society in positive ways, such as an increase in communication, literacy, and the preservation of valuable knowledge.

Solveig C. Robinson, The Book in Society. Pp. 82-100. Print.

“Early Printing in Europe – Gutenberg” (82) Robinson explains how Johannes Gutenberg invented the first printing press, along with other printing innovations such as moveable metal type (82) and the ink-stone (88). Robinson also helpfully explains Gutenberg’s inventions, providing information such as that “the crucial aspect of Gutenberg’s type-molds was that each finished letter or mark was of exactly the same height as all the others” (84). Gutenberg helped to standardize printing. Robinson also compares the process of type setting a book with the process of copying one out by hand. The two processes contrasted against each other serves to highlight the advantages and disadvantages of each profession, which is very helpful to the reader. For example, some major disadvantages Robinson points out with the type setting process is that it was very tedious, time-consuming, and costly (85). The two main advantages that Robinson affords type setting are the greater ease editing and proof-reading (85) and the ability to mass produce standardized editions (88).

“The Common Press” (88) In this section of the text, Robinson explains the technology and origins of the screw press and its various components, such as the “platen,” “tympan,” and the “frisket” (89). Robinson also draws attention to the various revisions the screw press had undergone in subsequent years, such as innovations to the rollers, and the addition of springs and new materials; iron casts replace wood fittings (90) for better efficiency and product endurance. Robinson says that, “although there would be many refinements over the next four centuries, Gutenberg’s design remained the basis for printing technology until the nineteenth century” (89). Robinson highlights Gutenberg’s contributions to printing and the way that he revolutionized the industry. Robinson further emphasizes this when they provide detailed information about Gutenberg’s two famous texts: The Gutenberg Bible and the Latin Psalter (1459). The Gutenberg Bible was the first completed Gutenberg text (90) and the Latin Psalter was the first book to include a colophon and red ink as well as black (90). Finally, Robinson closes this section of text by explaining the components of a book and the way they are used in printing.

“The Press and the Reformation” (93) In this section of the text, Robinson explores the way religion and print culture intersect. The corruption rampant within the various factions of Christianity is highlighted when Robinson explains indulgences and how they and pilgrimages can be bought: “such tasks as going on pilgrimages [could] be purchased outright, caus[ing] some critics to suspect that the Church hierarchy was more interested in accumulating wealth than in leading the faithful” (93). Robinson also draws attention to censorship and the role the Catholic Church played in the censoring and even the destruction of many texts. In addition, Robinson chronicles the way that Protestantism led to an increase not only in printed religious works, but also to an increase in the need for personal bibles, so that individuals might nurture their own spirituality and relationship with God by reading and interpreting the Bible for themselves (95). The King James Bible was printed in this era and Robinson states that, “because of the reach and influence of the British Empire in the intervening centuries, it lays claim to being one of the most widely circulated and influential books in history” (96).

Expansion, Enlightenment and Encyclopedists (98-100) Robinson equates the expansion of print culture with society’s desire to catalogue the world’s knowledge and the way printing came to the Americas (98). Robinson also pins the beginning of the era of Enlightenment on a single instance: the publication of Isaac Newton’s book on physics, the Principia Mathematica (99). Encyclopedias were also created during this push to systematize and chronicle knowledge (100). Robinson provides an enlightening and informative account of print culture throughout history and the various innovations to print technology, along with societal trends and the way these trends have impacted print culture through the ages.

Solveig C. Robinson, The Book in Society. Pp. 145-173. Print.

Introduction: Robinson’s focus is on the “rise of the modern author… with particular attention to the economic conditions” (146) which contributed to the different stages of authorship throughout history.

Patronage: According to Robinson, authors in the late seventeenth century relied on patronage or “financial sponsorship from individuals or from institutions” (147) when attempting to write and simultaneously generate an income. Patronage had pros and cons: the author did not have to constantly worry about money and the sponsor got to share in the artist’s acclaim. However, the sponsor would also then be susceptible to an author’s potential infamy. The author was to some extent restrained by the preferences of their sponsor, as falling out of favour with a powerful patron could be detrimental to one’s career (or freedom, in the case of Voltaire) (148).

Pseudonymous Publishing: Authors published anonymously or using pseudonyms for a variety of reasons according to Robinson: to avoid arrest (150), to preserve one’s reputation (151), to take the focus off of individual contributions for collective writing and publishing purposes (154), or to create a different persona which is more reflective of an author’s text or genre (153). Robinson states that the downside to pseudonyms is that they can unwittingly reinforce harmful stereotypes, such as the idea that a woman should take a pen name so that men would want to read their texts, which might potentially further inaccurate notions that writing by women is inferior (154).

Copyrighting: Robinson explains the inception of copyrighting and the measure of control it afforded authors. Copyrighting also allowed authors to “[transform] authorship from [a] vocation to [a] profession” (156). However, copyrighting led to some financial instability for certain authors, so support networks such as the Literary Fund were implemented (157). Booksellers then sought a new sort of relation between themselves and the authors, so they turned to subscription: “a direct descendent of the patronage system” (157). Authors and publishers would appeal to potential readers to pay a reoccurring fee in exchange for the texts. Subscription helped with costs but could also be viewed as tastelessly soliciting money (158).

Royalties: According to Robinson, royalties and shared profit systems depended on the honour of the bookseller (159), as publishers could inflate costs or minimize sales in order to avoid paying an author their dues. However, Robinson states that the royalty system was generally thought to be fair to both the publisher and the author as it, “provides the author with guaranteed income while finishing the manuscript, which helps protect the publisher’s investment in the proposed book” (160).

Literary Agents: Robinson states that a literary agent’s job is to “make sure authors are dealt with honourably” (164). They are most often in charge of financial negotiations (162) and act as “artistic and business representatives for authors” (162). Literary agents receive a percentage of an author’s earnings in exchange for their services. Author associations, however, are usually non-profit, charity organizations set up to aid struggling authors (165).

Translation, Adaptation, Transformation: Robinson lists several forms of adaptations and transformations which an author’s work might go through, such as, film or theatre adaptations, audiobooks, and braille editions (168). Robinson highlights the paradoxes and difficulties of translating texts, such as when they state: “any book is itself a kind of translation, ‘a translation from the images in the author’s mind to that which is he able to put down on paper’” (168).

Self-Publishing: Finally, Robinson highlights some of the pros and cons of self-publishing, such as the way an author can be considered vain or unsuccessful for publishing their own work. Robinson states several reasons why self-publishing can be beneficial to an author: an author is able to publish controversial content without implicating others (170), technological advances have made self-publishing much more accessible than it was in the past (171), authors are able to publish experimental works independently from their publishing house (171), and finally, hobby or specialist writers are able to publish niche texts such as cook books and family histories (172). Robinson’s chapter on authors and the circuit of the book was very informative and well structured. The headings made the section topics clear and easy to follow. Each section’s topic (i.e. subscription) offered a definition of the term and the positive and negative aspects of each. Engaging and easy to read prose.

Solveig C. Robinson, The Book in Society. Pp. 245-68 Print.

In this chapter of Robinson’s book, the focus is on the bookselling section of the book circuit, which covers independent booksellers, used and antiquarian booksellers, bookstore chains, superstores, online booksellers, distributors and wholesalers, and book fairs.

Independent Booksellers: (246) Robinson explains that independent bookshops were ousted by big chains (Chapters). The ones that survived did so because of several factors, such as: personalized touches, workshops and classes, cafes, book clubs, and a greater knowledge of the local market than the big chains (246). The main challenge for independent booksellers was often the high cost of the rent for the use of the physical space of their bookstore (248).

Used & Antiquarian Booksellers: (250) Robinson states that used and antiquarian booksellers make up a large portion of the bookselling market, as they are able to cater to a wider variety of markets, including niche markets. Antiquarians deal in rare books and manuscripts and are often able to sell entire collections or rare manuscripts to historians or collectors. This keeps them in business with the market giants. There are also several other lucrative ways for booksellers to utilize their used books: renting them out as props for the stage, specializing in specific genres, and offering the exchange of used books at a reduced cash value, or store credit worth a few dollars more (251).

Bookstore Chains: Robinson explains how bookstore chains often opened in prime, bustling locations such as railway stations. These bookstores would cheaply reprint books in “garish colours” to draw the eyes of travellers before they hopped onto their trains for their journeys. These chains became masters at advertising via their displays (vibrant and prominent new releases section). When these chains became popular books became available as impulse purchases for the first time (255). These railway station books gained the name “yellowbacks.”

The Superstores: (250) Superstores, or big box stores, were often located in cities as most aspired to be the destination bookstore in any given town or region (258). Barnes & Noble is one of the most well-known superstores in North America. As these stores are often treated as leisure destinations, customers are likely to spend more on the experience: a book, a treat from the café, and whatever else the store might have out on display. The atmospheres are often more intimate, with upscale furnishings and subdued and warm lighting (258).

Online Booksellers: (260) The new threat to the superstores was online bookselling, most notably with the online giant – Amazon.com – which “opened” in 1995. Online shops such as Amazon are able to save costs as they do not have to pay for rent on a physical store, there are no employees on the floor, they are able to remain open 24/7, and they have their own distribution centers. Amazon also offers an online virtual book reader, the Kindle, and tantalizing offers such as free shipping (262). Robinson explains that there are also specialist online booksellers called “aggregators” (261).

Distributors & Wholesalers: (264) Robinson states that distributors most often work with publishers and deal with the physical warehousing, while wholesalers generally work with retailers and libraries and tend to be less exclusive; they act as linking services. Distributors and wholesalers often buy in bulk and sell at discount prices. Robinson also highlights the fact that a book is one of the only consumer goods which is able to be unsold (265).

Book Fairs: (266) Robinson states that publishing trade shows (Wayzgoose) held at regular intervals around the world are extremely imperative to the networking aspects of the book circuit.

Febvre, Lucien and Martin, Henri-Jean. “The Book: Its Visual Appearance.” The Broadview Reader in Book History. Ed. Michelle Levy and Tom Mole. Broadview Press, 2015 (Canada). Pp. 15-36. Print.

“Type Founts” (17) Febvre and Martin highlight the four main styles of scripts used by early printers: blackletter, gothic, gothic bastarda, and Roman. Blackletter script was favoured by scholars and professors, gothic was the preferred ecclesiastical script, gothic bastarda was most often used by layman, and Roman came into favour with Petrarch and the humanists. Febvre and Martin state that “printing became more uniform for quite material reasons… printers had to make their own punches, and even a single fount cost a small fortune” (19). The type founts section of the text is informative but repetitive and could probably be further condensed.

“Inside The Book: Title Page, Colophon and Printer’s Mark” (21) Febvre and Martin explain that the information a modern reader finds on the title page of a book would have historically been found “at the end of the book in the ‘colophon’” (21). They also explain the printer’s mark and the technology and methodology they used when creating their marks, such as the differences between woodcut emblems and copper engravings. Febvre and Martin interestingly include the fact that printer’s marks became increasingly artistic and intricate as time went on. They also provide examples of printers and their emblems.

“Text and Format of the Book” (24) In this section of the text Febvre and Martin clearly and concisely explain the several different stages which were involved in the printing of a book, including elements such as: the signature, binding, register, quarto and octavo. They also helpfully state cultural trends, such as the fact that “people wished to take a book with them and to be able to transport it easily… hence the growing success of the ‘portable format’” (25). The background social information included in each respective section provides valuable context regarding the evolution of the printing process.

Illustration (26) Febvre and Martin state that the first illustrations in books were strictly religious depictions in nature. They state that illustrations were also looked down upon by the humanists. Febvre and Martin explain that, “as in block-printing itself, the purpose of the cuts was always to amplify the text and make it concretely real, not to produce a work of art” (27). However, they go on to explain several methods of adornment which were often used in the illustrating process of printing, such as copper engravings and how they were used.

“Clothing the Book: The Binding” (32) In this section, Febvre and Martin explain the way that the increasing public demand for books and the need for availability to the masses subsequently led to increased quantities of books but decreased quality of binding. They astutely summarize this notion when they state that, “with the growth in production of books and the increase in the reading public, the average binding gradually shed first its beauty and then its solidity” (36). Overall, this text is lengthy but well-written and informative.

Twyman, Michael. “What Is Printing?” The Broadview Reader in Book History. Ed. Michelle Levy and Tom Mole. Broadview Press, 2015 (Canada). Pp. 37-44. Print.

“Origination” (38) Twyman explains the two stages of printing: origination and multiplication. Twyman also goes on to explain that “the ideas that lie at the heart of printing have simply been modified over the years in response to major technological shifts from hand to machine and electronic production” (37). The differences between relief and intaglio printing are helpfully highlighted and the tripartite model of the three types of printing (relief, intaglio and planographic) is provided, along with a useful diagram which demonstrates the way each type of printing works.

“Multiplication” (40) This section of the text offers a detailed account of “the second stage of printing, the production of more or less identical copies of an item in the form of a print run” (40). Twyman also explains the process involved in making ink and paper. The prose is engaging and easy to read.

“Words and Pictures” (41) Twyman adequately explains aspects of printing and the social expectations which “have led to printed words and pictures being studied separately, and usually by people of different disciplines” (43). He distinguishes the series of events which led to the differentiation in the classification between art and literature.

“Printed Artifacts” (44) Twyman highlights the fact that printed artifacts are not limited to books. Twyman states that other texts, such as: “newspapers, magazines, maps, sheet music, playing cards, religious prints, bookplates, notices, posters, security printing, forms, invitations…” (44) also count as printed works. However, the demand for books has simply been higher than the demand for other texts, which has resulted in greater amounts of preserved books as opposed to other kinds of texts. This article was nicely organized and easy to read. I found it more enjoyable and condensed than the first article.

Eisenstein, Elizabeth L. “The Unacknowledged Revolution.” The Broadview Reader in Book History. Ed. Michelle Levy and Tom Mole. Broadview Press, 2015 (Canada). Pp. 215-30. Print.

Eisenstein highlights the fact that printing and its effect on society can be difficult to chronicle as these effects are subtle; one must compare scribal culture with print culture to notice the changes happening within society as a result of each. Eisenstein explores the symbiotic relationship between society and print culture. Eisenstein then explains the challenges historians face when researching scribal culture, for example: “the gulf that separates our experience from that of literate elites who relied exclusively on hand-copied texts is much more difficult to fathom” (217). In addition to the way in which historians are far removed from the material they study, the material itself can sometimes become corrupted with each subsequent hand-copy made, along with a general lack of uniformity in hand-copied texts (218).

Eisenstein explains how in the modern world, individuals tend to focus on the effects of the latest trends in media and pop culture and forget about the effects of newspapers, calendars, maps and other ephemera (220). Eisenstein states that because the impact of print “has become increasingly less visible, repercussions that are actually being augmented and amplified at present are paradoxically believed to be diminishing instead” (220). Eisenstein’s theory that printing continues to affect the social world in modern times even though as a society we tend to ignore this fact is enlightening and interesting. Eisenstein then highlights the way technological innovations rapidly shift the focus off older technology, scribal, to print, also highlighting how easily the older methods become forgotten.

Eisenstein also states that the field of study a historian operates in colours their research with a certain amount of bias, or rather concentrates their focus on one specific area and causes them to neglect the overall picture. Eisenstein uses the example of an economic historian focusing on the monetary aspects involved in the printing press and painting all printers out as capitalists (222). This conclusion is problematic as many printers had been altruistic and philanthropic as well (222). Eisenstein’s call for an intersectional approach to researching the history of print culture seems reasonable and the combined knowledge from several avenues of study would be bound to reveal more information than one specialist’s theories alone.

Eisenstein also explains how, “the spread of lay literacy… helped to pave the way for later developments, such as modern mass literacy” (226). Eisenstein highlights the way increased literacy led to the expansion of the printing press and posits that historians must look at the way in which literacy has affected print culture, rather than only focusing on the other way around. Eisenstein ends this informative and helpful text by stating that historians must acknowledge the shift from scribal to print culture and acknowledge the way the printing press ushered in the modern era and continues to have effects on our society today.

Johns, Adrian. “Introduction: The Book of Nature and the Nature of the Book.” The Broadview Reader in Book History. Ed. Michelle Levy and Tom Mole. Broadview Press, 2015 (Canada). Pp. 267-82. Print.

In their text, Johns provides a direct response to Eisenstein. Johns critiques Eisenstein’s theories that printing was uniform, accurate, fixed, and that printing revolutionized the way society approached and chronicled knowledge. Johns states that Eisenstein’s print culture does not exist (276). Johns asks how and why printing became inherently trusted as being accurate (276) and also asks the question: “how do readers decide what to believe?” (283)

Johns states that the history of printing is not as straightforward as it seems, due to issues such as piracy (270), plagiarism (281), and the subsequent lack of uniformity inherently within these copies. Johns also explains the way that commercial reproduction led to a decrease in the quality of printed texts, as printers began to lose their control over the printing process (276).

Johns explains two cases where the accessibility of printing has proved to be negative: Galileo and Tycho. Johns explains that the accessibility of printing has been a liability when works fall into the wrong hands. In Galileo’s case, it is highlighted that an author or a printer’s text can become incriminating or used against them criminally if interpreted by the wrong audience, as one is not able to control who their readers are (281). In the case of Tycho (a print shop owner), who was subjected to damaging accusations of plagiarism, Johns explains how this slander not only hurt his reputation but could easily happen again. Johns also demonstrates how piracy effected printers, as they state that Tycho claimed that Ursus pirated his text and attempted to claim it as his own due to his ability to reproduce copies faster.

Finally, Johns posits that print culture is, “a result not a cause” (277). Johns states that fixity depends on the actions of people and not the other way around (277) as texts do not compel people to act in certain ways so therefore should be interpreted with a degree of historical context (271). Johns ends by stating: “piracy had epistemic and economic implication [and] affected the structure of knowledge” (284).

Johns’ essay was an interesting response to and critique of Eisenstein. Reading Eisenstein and Johns back-to-back provided an interesting juxtaposition between the two theories of print culture. However, Johns’ arguments were murky in certain areas and the order of the arguments could have been structured in an order which made more sense to the progression of the author’s discussion. Also, it is rather vital to read Eisenstein’s article before Johns’, as otherwise one might not understand John’s references.

Darnton, Robert. “What Is the History of Books?” The Broadview Reader in Book History. Ed. Michelle Levy and Tom Mole. Broadview Press, 2015 (Canada). Pp. 231-247. Print.

In his text, "What Is the History of Books? " Robert Darnton explores just that question - “what is the history of books?” – and then proceeds to provide several theories as to what exactly he believes that is, such as when he states that book history is the “social and cultural history of communication by print” (232). Not only does Darnton seek to define book history, he also seeks to study, “how it affected the thoughts and behaviour of mankind during the last 500 years” (232). Darnton views book history as an amalgamation of academic disciplines and posits that the most accurate way to represent all of the facets of book history would be to take an intersectional and interdisciplinary approach to the study, to avoid potential bias or the unintentional over-looking of important factors (232). For example, an economic historian would be primarily concerned with the capitalist facet of printing and might unwittingly miss crucial information regarding social movements or political factors which might have affected what was being printed or read at the time.

Darnton also provides a helpful diagram which clearly demonstrates the phases involved in the cycle of printing a book (although the explanation of the diagram is slightly hard to follow as the distinction between the phases of a book and the “four considerations” mentioned was rather unclear). There are many phases involved in the printing of a book and Darnton explains these different phases along with the different people who are involved in the process, including authors (242), publishers (242), printers (243), shippers (244), booksellers (244), and readers (245). Darnton sums up book history by stating that, “Book History concerns each phase of this process and the process as a whole, in all its variations over space and time and in all its relations with other systems, economical, social, political, and cultural, in the surrounding environment” (234).

Darnton provides a view of book history and print culture which fits nicely in between the polarizing views of Eisenstein and Johns. Darnton highlights piracy and greed in the examples provided of Voltaire, which highlight Johns’ point that people directly effect print culture, rather than the other way around. However, Darnton also highlights the way print culture affects humankind, which is what Eisenstein’s primary focus seems to be.

In conclusion, Darnton states that he is “not arguing that Book History should be written according to a standard formula but trying to show how its disparate segments can be brought together within a single conceptual scheme” (241). Darnton brings the best of both Eisenstein’s and Johns’ arguments to theirs, by highlighting the symbiotic, yet slightly hierarchal relationship between all of the phases and factors which effect book history and print culture. Darnton also states that the modern reader’s understanding of book history is limited by ideology, as the differences in circumstance create a disconnect between the reader of today and the reader of the past. However, the best way to bridge the divide is by considering all aspects of print culture and all of the interdisciplinary factors which effect book history.

I personally found Darnton’s account of book history and print culture to be the best and least polarizing text between the three (Eisenstein, Johns, and Darnton).

Chartier, Roger. “Communities of Readers” The Broadview Reader in Book History. Ed. Michelle Levy and Tom Mole. Broadview Press, 2015 (Canada). Pp. 251-63. Print.

Chartier explores the relationship between the text, the book, and the reader. Primarily, Chartier states that, “a text only exists because there is a reader to give it meaning” (252). Chartier states that a historian’s task is to differentiate books from texts and/or their procedures of interpretation. The interpretation of a text is rooted in some measure of ideology along with an individual’s personal experience, as well as a culture or a society’s collective practices involving the reproduction of a text into book format (manuscript or print copy).

Chartier posits that if one wishes to study the history of reading, there are three poles to consider: the analysis of texts, the history of books, and the study of practices associated with texts and books (publishing, advertising, writing, culture, etc.) (252). Chartier further explores this symbiotic relationship between text, book, and practice when they state that the “intent was to inscribe the text into a cultural matrix that was not the one that its original creators had in mind, and by that means to permit ‘readings,’ [and] comprehensions” (259).

Finally, Chartier explains how form effects the reading of and interpretation of a text or book. Chartier states: “reading is not uniquely an abstract operation of intellect… this is why special attention should be paid to ways of reading that have disappeared in our contemporary world” (256). The example of oral tradition - or reading aloud - is provided when Chartier states that the rhythms, aphorisms, and line breaks which encompass a text become much more pronounced through the spoken word. As a result, a different interpretation of the meaning of a text will likely arise compared to that of a reader who read the very same text silently. Chartier seems to be suggesting that readers should be studied based on a specific demographic and their location within time and in society in order to understand the way that they might interpret a specific text or genre, as a reader’s specific social circumstances inevitably play a role in the way that they interpret the meaning of a text.

Chartier’s prose is engaging and easy to read and they make several relevant points regarding book history and print culture and the way in which they intersect. An informative text on the whole, although near the end of the article, the “three cleavages” section could have been explained in a clearer manner.

Milton, John. Areopagitica.

https://www.dartmouth.edu/~milton/reading_room/areopagitica/text.html

Milton’s topic of address and his intended audience are both immediately and clearly stated so that the reader is able to get a good sense of what the content of the text will contain simply by reading the title. Milton provides an argument against the censorship of books before print, he advocates for the liberty of free speech and argues that God gave humans free will and the ability to choose how they act, so they should be trusted to read subversive or obscene literature and choose how to act in accordance. He seems to be implying that the government is trying to play God or act as if they know better than God by dictating what knowledge and ideas beings of free will are able to access. Milton states that “evill manners are as perfectly learnt without books a thousand other ways which cannot be stopt,” furthering the notion that reason and free will should triumph over the potential that a book might influence a person in a way which was detrimental for society.

Milton condemns the condemnation of those individuals who print, write, circulate or read texts deemed forbidden by the parliament of England. He compares the destruction or censoring of books to other heinous crimes against humanity. Milton has a veneration of Greek culture, demonstrated through his mentions of Athens, Homer, the title of his text, and various other references to Greek government, geography, literature and people.

Next, Milton explains how there was a shift in culture toward Christianity and highlights the way the dominating members of the clergy then became the main perpetrators of censoring valuable literature.

Milton then explains the deficits which can be found in licensers: “The State shall be my governours, but not my criticks; they may be mistak'n in the choice of a licencer, as easily as this licencer may be mistak'n in an author” (Areopagitica). Along with their weaknesses, Milton also highlights the struggles licensers faced in their professions.

Censorship, according to Milton, hinders truth and knowledge and goes against human rights, most specifically, the liberty of free speech. He appeals to the parliament of England to afford humans the right to free will that God bestowed upon Adam and Eve. He argues that reason and morality will triumph over the dangers of titillating literature, so there can be no upside to censorship. Milton’s ideas are valid, and his examples corroborate his points of discussion, however, the text was rather lengthy and somewhat repetitive. Also, one needs to understand many allusions and references in order for them to make sense. An impassioned plea, Milton’s arguments are convincing, but read almost like a sermon.

McGann, Jerome. “The Rationale of the Hypertext.” The Broadview Reader in Book History. Ed. Michelle Levy and Tom Mole. Broadview Press, 2015 (Canada). Pp. 459-73. Print.

“The Book as a Machine of Knowledge” McGann focuses on the visible aspects of books and literature. He explains the difference between facsimile and critical editions: “facsimile editions are most useful not as analytic engines, but as tools for increasing access to rare works” (463). Facsimile editions allow the reader to see what the book physically looked like, whereas critical editions offer insight into the meaning of the text. McGann explains the benefits of hyperediting when he states that, “separate books and documents can also be made simultaneously present to each other, as well as all the parts of the documents” (463), rather than the cumbersome physical copies of several editions of books.

“Hyperediting and Hypermedia” McGann further explains why hypermedia editions can be superior to traditional physical books when he states: “hypermedia editions that incorporate audial and/or visual elements are preferable since literary works are themselves always more or less elaborate multimedia forms” (465). Allowing a reader to experience sensory elements as well as simply the textual aspect of a work transforms the way readers and critics interact with the text or media and fosters a greater depth of meaning and authenticity to the piece.

“The Necessity of Hypermedia” McGann uses William Blake’s work as an example which showcases the inception of mixed text and media works. He states: “Blake’s work thus forecasts the massive opening of the textual field that took place in the nineteenth century when image and word began to discover new and significant bibliographic relations” (467). He goes on to say that, “they are the signs of a culture-wide effort for the technological means to raise the expressive power of the book through visual design” (467). Also, from one edition to the next, the physical copy of the book changes, creating more distance between each simultaneous edition and the original, hypermedia editions do not suffer under the same limitations. McGann states that, “the computerized structure allows the reader to undertake searches and analyses of the material that would have been impossible, even unimaginable, in a codex environment” (469). Hypermedia opens up new avenues of reading and study in regard to the deconstruction of a text’s meaning and allows for constant revision and growth.

“Conclusion: The Rosetti Hypermedia Archive” McGann furthers his point that hypermedia is more flexible than traditionally methods of copy-texting when he states that, “a work like the “Rosetti hypermedia archive has escaped that bibliographic limitation. It has been built so that its contents and its webwork of relations (both internal and external) can be indefinitely expanded and developed” (470).

“Coda. A Note on the Decentered Text” McGann explains that there is an argument between critics on “whether or not hyperediting requires… a central ‘text’ for organizing the hypertext of documents. My judgement is that it doesn’t” (471). McGann seems to be suggesting that there should be some standardization when it comes to presenting material in hypermedia form, but no limitations on time organization. He also states that, “no documentary state of the work is privileged over the other. All options are presented for the reader’s choice” (472). This suggests that some of the inevitable human bias is removed from the process, providing a truer method for a reader or a critic to generate meaning from the text. McGann’s response to Greg’s essay on the copy-text suggests that hypertext is rapidly replacing copy-text editions and should therefore not be ignored.

Tanselle, Thomas G. “The Editorial Problem of Final Authorial Intention.” The Broadview Reader in Book History. Ed. Michelle Levy and Tom Mole. Broadview Press, 2015 (Canada). Pp. 139-54. Print.

Tanselle responds to and expands upon Greg’s theories on the role of the editor and how to preserve an author’s intent from one edition of a text to another, along with guidelines on how an editor can decide what to revise and which versions of a text they should select for their text-copy. He explains the symbiotic relationship between the editor and the texts: the careful study of the text and what it might reveal about the author’s intention creates a deeper meaning and a deeper level of understanding between the editor and his texts of study. Tanselle states that “the editor finds himself in the position of the critic after all” (144).

Tanselle posits that in order for an editor to best make decisions on what to emend and what to exclude from one edition of a text to another, they must first understand the three different kinds of authorial intention, the two kinds of revision, and the two attitudes an author might have toward these revisions.

Tanselle borrows Michael Hancher’s three kinds of intentions: programmatic, active, and final. Programmatic is the author’s intention to create a text, active intention involves diction and style and other such decisions that an author makes during the act of writing. Final intention is murkier, as Tanselle states that, “the work has an existence distinct from the wishes (expressed or implied) of its creator, and ‘intention’ regarding publication is different from the active intention embodied in the work” (152). Therefore, it is difficult for an editor to concretely state what an author’s final intent regarding the work might be. He says that, “the only direct evidence one has for what was in the author’s mind is not what he says was there but what one finds in his work” (153). Tanselle highlights the transient nature of an author’s final intent.

Next, Tanselle explains the two types of revision produced by an editor: horizontal and vertical. Horizontal revision seeks to improve a text without drastically changing the author’s original ideas. Vertical revision seeks to reinvent the text in some significant way. Horizontal revision is more reflective of an edition of a text, whereas vertical revision points toward more of a version of a text than an edition. Tanselle explains the major difference between the two types of revision when he states that, “both produce local changes in active intention; but revisions of the first type [vertical] appear to be in fulfillment of an altered programmatic intention or to reflect an altered active intention in the work as a whole, whereas those of the second [horizontal] do not” (149). Therefore, horizontal revisions seem to remain truest to the original intent of the author.

Finally, Tanselle describes the two attitudes an author might have in response to an editor’s revisions: they can either embrace them or simply acquiesce. Tanselle explains the difference between the two attitudes when he states that “what the editor must attempt to assess is whether the author genuinely preferred the changes made by the publisher’s reader or whether he merely acquiesced in them” (147). Tanselle highlights how it is preferable for an author to embrace an editor’s revisions: “if an author accepts what someone else has done not in a spirit of acquiescence but of active collaboration, the result does represent his active intention” (148).

Descriptive Bibliography

Title Page Transcription: TRAVELS | TROUGH THE | INTERIOR PARTS | OF | NORTH AMERICA, | IN THE | YEARS 1766, 1767, AND 1768. | BY J. CARVER. ESQ. | CAPTAIN OF A COMPANY OF PROVINCIAL | TROOPS DURING THE LATE | WAR WITH FRANCE. | ILLUSTRATED WITH COPPER PLATES. | LONDON: | PRINTED FOR THE AUTHOR; | AND SOLD BY J. WALTER, AT CHARING-CROSS, AND | S. CROWDER, IN PATER-NOSTER ROW. | MDCCIXXVIII

Formula: 21.5cm x 14cm | map 39cm x 34cm | A^4-Ll^4 | 136 leaves | [1-21], i-xvi, 17-543, [544], 574 pages.

Contents: [1] blank [2] map [3] title page [4] blank [5-6] dedication [7-21] table of contents i-xvi introduction 17-543 text [544] direction for placing the plates, errata.

Physical Description: Mottled dark brown and tan pressed cardboard binding; spine re-bound with black tape. Illegible text near the base of the spine. Extensive water damage to the bottom half of the front and back covers. Faded red, white, and black ink splotches on the back cover. Binding worn and flaking into the gutters. Copper plate engraving used for maps and illustrations. Paper appears to be made using the mold and deckle method: chain and laid lines visible.

Miscellaneous: [1] “First Edition” written in pencil centered on the page; “1-17043” written in pencil top-right corner. 2 cm piece of the page missing from the top-left corner, rough edge, potentially ripped out. [2] Folded black and white map pasted onto a blank page, beginning to become unglued; 39cm x 34cm with 3 ½cm margins, several borders and rivers are traced in red, green, and yellow ink. [3] Top right-hand corner: “A 917 C25a” is written in pencil and crossed out. [5] “A F599 C35” written in the center of the page, then struck through with pencil. [6] “2 3651” written in pencil, bottom-left corner of the page. Pp. 74-5: the pages correctly change sequentially from 74 to 75, however, there is a page in between these two pages which appears to have been cut out of the book but is still firmly bound. Page 369: newspaper clipping placed in the gutter which results in a rectangular area of brown discolouration approximately the same size as the clipping.

Provenance: Printed in London for the author and then sold by J. Walter at Charing-Cross and S. Crowder in Pater Noster Row. Acquired by the Acadia University library in 1917 when purchased from the Edwards Library. Joseph Edwards was a book collector and decided to sell his collection of 10,000 books for 10,000 dollars. Acadia was able to fund $5000. Senator Dennis donated the other $5000 for the collection on the condition that the university would rename the collection in memory of his late son Eric, who was killed in the war. The book at first resided in the main university library until it was relocated into the Dennis special collection in the Kirkconnell Archives, where it still resides presently.

Gutenberg Printing Press